Maurice Crosland,凌永乐

• 1: 英国坎特布雷城肯特大学

摘要(Abstract)：

研究化学史有许多不同的方法,但是科学家出身的历史学家们的内史论研究方法正在不断地被视野较广阔的外史论研究方法所取代,这种研究方法试图找出科学活动在它的整个历史背景中的地位。本文对与拉瓦锡(Lavoisier)姓氏有联系的“化学革命”以及伴随化学在法国、德国和英国作为一门职业而引起的发展进行了新的阐述。我们将从传记和机构建制两方面研究获得很多知识,这有助于将化学史和其他领域联系起来。

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作者(Author): Maurice Crosland,凌永乐

参考文献(References)：

• 1． A splendid example of internalist history of chemistry and a valuable reference tool is: J. R. Partington, History of Chemistry, vols. 2, 3, 4, London, 1961-64．
• 2． MAURICE CROSLAND, 'Lavoisier's theory of acidity', Isis, 64(1973) pp. 306-325． Here is a reminder that the oxygen theory was more than simply a theory of combustion.
• 3． ROBERT MULTHAUF, 'The French crash program for saltpeter production, 1776-94', Technology and Culture, 12 (1971) , pp. 163-181．
• 4． L. F. HABER, The chemical industry during the nineteenth century, Oxford, 1958, pp. 58-60, 81-82, 86-87．
• 5． On atomism see, for example, CHRISTOPH MEINEL, 'Early seventeenth-century atomism. Theory, epistemology and the insufficiency of experiment', Isis, 79 (1988) , pp. 68-103．
• 6． See, for example, the contribution by John McEvoy in R. E. W. Anderson and Christopher Lawrence (eds.) Science, Medicine and Dissent: Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) London, 1987． This volume combines a whore range of different approaches to the understanding of the polymath Priestley.
• 7． JOHN H. BROOKE, 'Wohler's urea, and its vitalforce?-A verdict from the chemists', Ambix, 15(1968) , pp. 84-114．
• 8． WILLIAM H. BROCK, From protyle to proton: William Prout and the nature of matter, Hilger, 1988．
• 9． See, for example, J. H. LODWIG and W. A. SMEATON, 'The ice-calorimeter of Lavoisier and Laplace and some of its critics', Annals of Science, 31 (1974) , pp. 1-18． See also: W. A. SMEATON, 'Some large burning lenses and their use by eighteenth-century French and British chemists.' Annals of Science, 44 (1987) , pp. 265-276．
• 10． BETTY JO DOBBS, The foundations of Newton's alchemy or 'The Hunting of the Greene Lyon', Cambridge, 1975, The Janus faces of genius: The role of alchemy in Newton's thought, Cambridge, 1990．
• 11． RICHARD S. WESTFALL, Never at rest. A biography of Isaac Newton, Cambridge, 1980．
• 12． See, for example, ALLEN DEBUS, The English Paracelsians, London, 1965, Chapter 1．
• 13． Alchemy revisited. Proceedings of an international congress at the University of Groningen, 17-19 April 1989, Groningen, 1990．
• 14． The latest volume to appear at the time of writing is: Oeuvres de Lavoisier. Correspondance, publiee sous les auspices du Comite Lavoisier de l'Academie des Sciences, Fascicule Ⅳ, 1784-86, edited by Michelle Goupil, Paris, 1986．
• 15． See MAURICE CROSLAND, 'Chemistry and the chemical revolution', in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds.) The ferment of knowledge. Studies in the historiography of eighteenthcentury science, Cambridge, 1980, pp. 389-416．
• 16． A whole issue, edited by Arthur Donovan, of the revived journal Osiris has been devoted to 'The chemical revolution. An essay in reinterpretation', Osiris, 2nd series, Vol. 4, 1988/89． A special issue of Ambix was devoted to Lavoisier, Ambix, 36 (1) (publ. June 1989) . In addition the text of lectures given at a small international conference held in 1989 at Louvain-la-Neuve was published in Revue des Questions Scientifiques, 160 (2) , 1989． The lectures given at a conference held at the Ecole Polytechnique on Lavoisier in December 1989 are to be published by that institution.
• 17． FREDERIC LAWRENCE HOLMES, Lavoisier and the chemistry of life. An exploration of scientific creativity, Madison, Wisconsin, 1985．
• 18． See note 6 above. Also MAURICE CROSLAND, 'Priestley Memorial Lecture. A practical perspective on Joseph Priestley as a pneumatic chemist', British Journal for the History of Science, 16 (1983) , pp. 223-238． SIMON SCHAFER, 'Priestley's questions: An historiographical survey', History of Science, 22(1984) , pp. 151-183．
• 19． JANIS LANGINS, La republique avait besoin de savants. Les debuts de l'Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, 1987．
• 20． MARGARET BRADLEY, 'The facilities for practical instruction in science during the early years of the Ecole Polytechnique', Annals of Science, 33 (1976) , pp. 425-446．
• 21． MAURICE CROSLAND, Gay-Lussac, scientist and bourgeois, Cambridge, 1978． French translation, Belin, Paris, 1990．
• 22． COLIN A. RUSSELL et al., Chemists by profession. The origins and rise of the Royal Institute of Chemistry, Milton Keynes, 1977．
• 23． ROBERT BUD and GERRYLYN K. ROBERTS, Science versus practice. Chemistry in Victorian Britain, Manchester, 1984, pp. 51 ff.
• 24． J. B. MORRELL, 'The chemist breeders: The research schools of Liebig and Thomas Thomson', Ambix, 19 (1972) , pp. 1-46．
• 25． JOHN GRAHAM SMITH, The origins and development of the heavy chemical industry in France, Oxford, 1979．
• 26． JOHN J. BEER, 'Coal tar manufacture and the origins of the modern industrial research laboratory', Isis, 49 (1958) , pp. 124-131． GEORG MEYER-THUROW, 'The industrialisation of invention: A case study from the German chemical industry', Isis, 73 (1982) , pp. 363-381．
• 27． JOSEPH S. FRUTON, "The Liebig research group-a reappraisal', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 132(1988) , pp. 1-66． See also note 24 above.
• 28． MAURICE CROSLAND, The Society of Arceuil. A view of French science at the time of Napoleon 1, London, 1967．
• 29． LEO J. KLOSTERMAN, 'A research school of chemistry in the nineteenth century: Jean-Baptiste Dumas and his research students', Annals of Science, 42 (1985) pp. 1-80．
• 30． This is the subject of a Ph. D. thesis at the University of Kent by Ana Carneiro.
• 31． R. G. A. DOLBY,'The case of physical chemistry' in G. Lemaine, R. MacLeod, M. Mulkay and P. Weingart (eds.) Perspectives in the emergence of scientific disciplines, Paris, 1976, pp. 63-73．
• 32． MAURICE CROSLAND, Historical studies in the language of chemistry, 2nd edn., New York, 1978, p. 181． For a discussion of language applied to theories anti.processes rather than to substances, see, for example, A. M. DUNCAN, 'Styles of language and modes of chemical thought', Ambix, 28 (1981) , pp. 83-107．
• 33． Ibid., pp. 347 ff.
• 34． Ibid., Chapters 1, 2, 3．
• 35． WILMA C. ANDERSON, Between the library and the laboratory. The language of chemistry in eighteenth-century France, Baltimore, 1984．
• 36． See, for example, Owen Hannaway, The chemists and the word, Baltimore, 1975, and the wide-ranging review by J. R. R. CHRISTIE and J. V. GOLINSKI, 'The spreading of the word: New directions in the historiography of chemistry', History of Science, 20(1982) , pp. 235-266．
• 37． MARIO MORSELLI, Amadeo Avogadro, Dordrecht, 1984． DOROTHY STANSFIELD, Thomas Beddoes, Dordrecht, 1984． F. W. McCosH, Boussingault, Dordrecht, 1984．
• 38． For literature in English or Mendeleev which can be specially recommended, see J. W. VAN SPRONSON, The periodic system of chemical elements. The history of the first hundred years, Amsterdam 1969 and BERNADETTE BENSAUDE-VINCENT, 'Mendeleev's periodic system of chemical elements', British Journal for the History of Science, 19 (1986) , pp. 3-17．
• 39． Berkeley, Cal., 1982．
• 40． Op. cit., p. 3．
• 41． One of these, now in press, is DAVID KNIGHT, Ideas in Chemistry, London, Athlone Press.